Early media effects thinking and theory Early media research assumed direct effects, adopting a ‘hypodermic’ injection concept of mass media, also described as the ‘transmissional’ model based on the wellknown concept of communication developed by Shannon and Weaver (1949) which simplistically described communication as transmitting a message from a sender to a receiver. In this view, power was thought to reside in texts and the producers. Audiences were perceived as passive receivers of information (Newbold et al., 2002, p. 25).
“The first stage of media audience research reflects … strong impressions of the … media as powerful, persuasive forces in society”, Lull (2000. p. 98) summarises. Views of the media as powerful propaganda tools which were or could be unleashed on a hapless mass audience led to the Marxist influenced Mass Manipulative Model of the media and underpinned later cultural hegemony and political economy views. In 1937, with the proliferation of radio, Antonio Gramsci proposed that “ideological hegemony” created through powerful mass media was used by the ruling class to “perpetuate their power, wealth and status” (Barr, 2000, p. 17). Marxist and neo-Marxist scholars such as Adorno and Horkheimer (1972; Habermas, 1989 and Marcuse (1972)) saw the media as “managers of opinion at the behest of the powerful” (Curran, 2002, p. 45).
The transmissional or hypodermic injection model of mass media dominated thinking during the first half of the 20th century.
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